Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective

内容摘要

Chapter 1 -- Learning: Introduction, Issues, Historical Perspectives Learning Defined Learning Theory and Research Functions of theory Conducting research Methods of Assessing Learning Direct observations Written responses Oral responses Ratings by others Self-reports Precursors of Modern Learning Theories Learning theory and philosophy Beginnings of the psychological study of learning Structuralism and functionalism Critical Issues in the Study of Learning Which processes affect learning? What is the role of memory? What is the role of motivation? How does transfer occur? Which processes are involved in self-regulation? What are the implications for instruction? Relation of Learning and Instruction Historical perspective Instructional commonalities Integration of theory and practice Three Learning Scenarios Kathy Stone's third-grade class Jim Marshall's U. S. History class Gina Brown's educational psychology class Summary Further Reading Chapter 2 -- Conditioning Theories Connectionism Trial-and-error learning Laws of exercise and effect Other principles Revisions to Thorndike's theory Instructional applications Classical Conditioning Basic processes Informational variables Biological influences Conditioned emotional reactions Watson's Behaviorism Basic processes Little Albert experiment Contiguous Conditioning Acts and movements Associative strength Rewards and punishments Habit formation and change Operant Conditioning Conceptual framework Basic processes Behavioral change Behavior modification Verbal behavior Self-regulation Self-monitoring Self-instruction Self-reinforcement Instructional Applications Behavioral objectives Programmed instruction Contingency contracts Keller Plan Summary Further Reading Chapter 3 -- Social Cognitive Theory Conceptual Framework for Learning Reciprocal interactions Enactive and vicarious learning Learning and performance Modeling Processes Theories of imitation Functions of modeling Cognitive skill learning Rule learning Influences on Learning and Performance Developmental status of learners Model prestige and competence Vicarious consequences to models Goals and Expectations Goals Outcome expectations Self-Efficacy Conceptual overview Self-efficacy in achievement situations Models and self-efficacy Motor skills Instructional self-efficacy Health and therapeutic activities Self-Regulation Conceptual framework Social cognitive processes Cyclical nature of self-regulation Instructional Applications Models Self-efficacy Self-regulation Summary Further Reading Chapter 4 -- Cognitive Information Processing Theory Cognitive Information Processing System Assumptions Two-store (dual-memory) model Critique Levels of processing Activation level Attention Theories of attention Attention and learning Attention and reading Perception Gestalt theory Sensory registers Long term memory comparisons Two-Store Memory Model Verbal learning Short-term (working) memory Long-term memory Influences on encoding Long-Term Memory: Storage Propositions Storage of declarative knowledge Storage of procedural knowledge Production Systems and Connectionist Models Production systems Connectionist models Long-Term Memory: Retrieval Retrieval strategies Encoding specificity Retrieval of declarative knowledge Retrieval of procedural knowledge Long-Term Memory: Forgetting Verbal learning Information processing Mental Imagery Representation of spatial information Imagery in LTM Individual differences Summary Further Reading Chapter 5 -- Cognitive Learning Processes Conditional Knowledge and Metacognition Conditional knowledge Metacognition and learning Variables influencing metacognition Metacognition and behavior Concept Learning The nature of concepts Concept attainment Teaching of concepts Motivational processes Problem Solving Problem solving defined Historical influences Heuristics Information processing model Problem-solving strategies Problem solving and learning Experts and novices Implications for instruction Transfer Historical views Activation of knowledge in memory Types of transfer Strategy transfer Instructional applications Self-Regulation and Motivation Model of self-regulation Learning strategies Critique of strategy instruction Academic studying Summary Further Reading Chapter 6 -- Constructivist Theory Constructivist Assumptions and Perspectives Overview Perspectives Situated cognition Contributions and applications Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory Background Basic principles Zone of Proximal Development Applications Critique Social Processes and Private Speech Private speech Verbalization and achievement Socially mediated learning Motivation Contextual factors Implicit theories Teachers' expectations Self-Regulation Sociocultural influences Implicit theories of self-regulation Constructivist Learning Environments Key features APA Learner-Centered Principles Instructional methods Reflective teaching Summary Further Reading Chapter 7 -- Cognition and Instruction Discovery Learning The process of discovery Teaching for discovery Meaningful Reception Learning Meaningfulness and expository teaching Advance organizers Conditions of Learning Learning outcomes Learning events Learning hierarchies Phases of learning Models of Instruction Learning time Mastery learning Inquiry teaching Instruction with worked examples Cognitive load Peer-assisted learning Research on Teaching Teacher planning and decision making Instructional practices Learner Characteristics Aptitude-treatment interactions Cognitive styles Learners' resource allocations Adapting instruction Technology and Instruction Functions of technology Technological applications Future directions Summary Further Reading Chapter 8 -- Development and Learning Beginnings of the Scientific Study of Development Historical foundations Philosophical foundations The Child Study Movement Perspectives on Human Development Issues relevant to learning Types of developmental theories Structural theories Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Developmental processes Implications for instruction Bruner's Theory of Cognitive Growth Cognitive growth and knowledge representation Spiral curriculum Contemporary Themes in Development and Learning Developmental changes Developmentally appropriate instruction Transitions in schooling Familial Influences SES Home environment Parental involvement Motivation and Development Developmental changes Implications Development and Instruction Case's model of instruction Teacher-student interactions Summary Further Reading Chapter 9 -- Neuroscience of Learning Organization and Structures Neural organization Brain structures Localization and interconnections Brain research methods Neurophysiology of Learning Information processing system Memory networks Language learning Brain Development Influential factors Phases of development Critical periods Language development Motivation and Emotions Motivation Emotions Implications for Teaching and Learning Relevance of brain research Educational issues Brain-based educational practices Summary Further Reading Chapter 10 -- Content-Area Learning Skill Acquisition General and specific skills Novice-to-Expert Research Methodology Language Comprehension Components of comprehension Parsing Utilization Reading Decoding Comprehension Writing Composition Processes Reviewing Processes Motivation and self-regulation Mathematics Computation skills Problem-solving skills Constructivism Individual differences Science Expert-novice differences Reasoning Constructivism and scientific beliefs Social Studies History Geography Summary Further Reading Chapter 11 -- Motivation Model of Motivated Learning Pretask During task Posttask Historical Perspectives Drive theory Conditioning theory Cognitive consistency theory Humanistic theory Achievement Motivation Expectancy-value theory Familial influences Fear of success Contemporary model of achievement motivation Self-worth theory Task and ego involvement Achievement motivation training Attribution Theory Locus of control Naive analysis of action Attribution theory of achievement Attribution change programs Social Cognitive Theory Goals and expectations Social comparison Goal Theory Goal orientations Conceptions of ability Implications for teaching Perceptions of Control Control beliefs Learned helplessness Students with learning problems Self-Concept Dimensions and development Self-concept and learning Intrinsic motivation Theoretical perspectives Overjustification and reward Motivation and Self-Regulation Volition Values Self-schemas Help seeking Summary Further Reading Chapter 12 -- Next Steps Learning Questions Which processes affect learning? What is the role of memory? What is the role of motivation? How does transfer occur? Which processes are involved in self-regulation? What are the implications for instruction Learning Theories Conditioning Social cognitive Cognitive information processing Constructivist Conclusion Glossary References Author Index Subject Index